Sara Boyle, M.Ed.
Graduate Student

School Psychology Program
Kent State University
Sboyle9@kent.edu

 PBS is commonly referred to as Positive Behavior Supports (PBS), Positive Behavior Interventions and Supports (PBIS), School-Wide Positive Behavior Supports (SW-PBS), or Program-Wide Positive Behavior Supports at the preschool level, all referencing the same practice. PBS presents as a universal framework to prevent problematic behavior within the school environment. PBS is built upon a strong foundation to evaluate students’ behavioral outcomes within an evidence-based, data-driven framework (Sugai & Horner, 2002). Instead of assigning an intervention that may or may not work to a student in need, the goal of PBS is to functionally identify where, when, and why problem behaviors are occurring in hopes of teaching the student a more socially acceptable behavior that yields the same result (Dunlap, Sailor, Horner, & Sugai, 2009). In addition to identifying individual functions of behavior, another unique aspect of PBS is that it addresses all students within a school, not just students who are at-risk, within special education, or who have been previously diagnosed with a disability or mental illness. Behavioral supports are supplied to the student population through varying degrees depending on their individual needs. The students’ needs are addressed within primary, secondary, and tertiary levels of support within the PBS framework.

With the focus on primary prevention, instead of instructing students on what not to do, the school is responsible for the teaching and demonstrating the acceptable behaviors in which they expect students to engage (Sugai & Horner, 2002). Setting behavioral expectations as well as teaching the students how to engage in proper behavior will be effective in preventing problem behavior within about 80% of the student population (Sugai & Horner, 2002). However, the remaining 20% of students need a little extra support in improving their behavior, yielding the secondary and tertiary levels of PBS. At the secondary level, Sugai and Horner (2002) described the process of minimizing student risk factors (i.e., poverty, lack of supervision, etc.) while maximizing protective factors (i.e., school supports, family involvement, etc.) in regard to preventing problematic behaviors. Many supports provided at the secondary level occur through a group format and is effective in reaching about 15% of the remaining 20% of students in need (Sugai & Horner, 2002). Finally, the tertiary level is targeted to reach the remaining 5% of students in need of intensive behavioral supports. These students demonstrate diverse individual needs to address their high-risk behavior so many assessments and interventions at this level are catered to the individual student (Sugai & Horner, 2002).

PBS Success in Grade School Environments

Before advocating for a PBS framework within preschool environments, first it is imperative to examine the effectiveness and success PBS has had in grade schools (i.e., elementary, middle, etc.). To demonstrate effectiveness of PBS in elementary school, a study by Horner, Sugai, Smolkowski, Eber, Nakasata, Todd, and Esperanza (2009) compared results on the School-wide Evaluation Tool (SET) pre-and post-training for PBS. The SET is a tool utilized to evaluate the implementation of PBS components within the school environment. Results indicate that within the SET results administered post PBS training, more components of PBS were implemented, there were less reports of risk for school safety, and more students were meeting or exceeding the third grade state reading standards (Horner et al., 2009).

Similar PBS success was demonstrated in a study within middle schools conducted by Caldarella, Shatzer, Gray, Young, and Young (2011). Comparing a PBS group and a control group, students within the treatment groups yielded higher GPAs than pre-PBS, connecting PBS to student’s academic success (Caldarella et al., 2011). In addition, middle schools participating in the treatment group demonstrated lower rates of office referrals for disruptive behavior, and tardiness rates and unexcused absences decreased (Caldarella, 2011). In addition, higher effect sizes were demonstrated for the student’s ability to learn and use appropriate behavior, displaying a connection between PBS and increased levels of prosocial behavior (Caldarella, 2011). Finally, Caldarella et al. (2011) examined the rates of teacher excellence, school leadership, the quality of academic instruction, and resource management within school staff, all showing increased levels post PBS implementation

Finally, unique findings were presented within the Texas Juvenile Justice Department’s review of PBS effectiveness within the state. Compared to rates before the implementation of PBS, attendance rates increased in schools (Texas Juvenile Justice Department & United States of America, 2012). In reference to school office referrals, rates of disciplinary and incident reports decreased post PBS implementation, with 70% of students engaging in less than one major incident per month (Texas Juvenile Justice Department & United States of America, 2012). In terms of academics, students were making higher monthly gains in reading and math, more students were reading at the appropriate grade level, and more students were earning their diploma or GED after PBS was put in place (Texas Juvenile Justice Department & United States of America, 2012). While this report did not exclusively explore traditional school environments (i.e., included correctional facilities and other non-school environments), the findings are still relevant due to the success demonstrated in behavior and academics within the students after PBS was implemented in their environment.

After examining the core elements of PBS, it is clear that there is a need for early intervention and prevention services at the preschool level to ensure less problematic behaviors within a child’s future. Over 20 abstracts were generated, with the final list of articles to be reviewed totaling at 16. The focus of this literature review is threefold: (1) describe the necessary adaptations of grade school PBS programs to fit preschool needs; (2) address special considerations for implementing PBS in preschools; and (3) provide PBS program examples that have been effective within the preschool environment.

Necessary Adaptations for Preschool PBS programs

It may seem obvious that children in preschool environments are at a different developmental stage within their lives, with less vocabulary and social and emotional understanding than students in elementary, middle, and high school programs. With that said, several things need to be taken into account when a preschool is adapting a PBS framework from a grade school. Much literature focus is placed on discussing necessary adaptations for preschool students to ensure the most age-appropriate PBS standards to help the students be successful. These adaptations are organized in Table 1 below, with a discussion of each piece of literature, as well.

 Table 1: PBS Adaptations for Preschools as Demonstrated in the Literature

Program Component  Grade School Components  Preschool Adaptations 
 Program Preparation and Training  School-wide, use office referrals for data collection (Stormont, Lewis, & Beckner, 2005) Program-wide, leadership teams much larger than elementary teams, personalized trainings for smaller programs, training to distinguish between challenging behaviors and developmentally appropriate behaviors (Muscott, Pomerleau, & Szczesiul, 2009; Stormont, Lewis, & Beckner, 2005)
 Program Evaluation  School-wide Evaluation Tool (SET; Horner, Todd, Lewis-Palmer, Irvin, Sugai, Boland, 2004)  Preschool-wide Evaluation Tool (Pre-SET; Benedict, Horner, & Squires, 2007; Steed, Noh, Heo, 2014)
 Program Materials  School-wide behavioral expectations posted around school (Horner et al., 2004)  Displayed rules poster of 2-5 class rules, posted class schedules, transition signals and warnings, teacher precorrection, and specific verbal praise (4:1 ratio for positive statements to negative statements (Benedict, Horner, & Squires, 2007; Muscott, Pomerleau, & Szczesiul, 2009)
 Behavior Expectations  More mature concepts, using more complex vocabulary (i.e., “Be Respectful”), expectations are same for entire school, more than 2-5 expectations  2-5 behavioral expectations per classroom, teacher matrix of expectations aligned with class rules, less behavioral expectations than elementary, lesson plans for each expectation (Benedict, Horner, & Squires, 2007)

 

Program Preparation and Training

The first PBS component for adaptation to be discussed is program preparation and staff training. Generally, within grade schools, PBS is implemented as a “school-wide” effort with the leadership teams being comprised of that specific school’s staff. Conversely, since many preschools may fall within one preschool program (e.g., Childtime, Head Start) the PBS term utilized is “program-wide” supports, with this distinction being of importance as we explore the adaptations to the individual programs further. An article by Stormont, Lewis, and Becknew (2005) specifically intended to demonstrate the differences between PBS programs in preschools and elementary schools, to highlight how to implement PBS programs in preschools. The first distinction made by Stormont, Lewis, and Beckner (2005) was that the leadership teams within a preschool are often larger due to more staff being employed by the overall preschool program, as discussed above. Second, Stomont, Lewis, and Beckner (2005) noted that since preschool children are younger than those in grade school, less rules and expectations should be established than those in grade schools. With that said, preschool teachers are then expected to create a lesson plan geared toward each behavioral expectation to explicitly teach that expectation to students, a similar concept of grade school PBS. Finally, similar to grade school PBS, specific verbal praise and feedback must be provided to students to encourage positive behaviors within the classroom (Stormont, Lewis, & Beckner, 2005). Although the study by Stormont, Lewis, and Beckner (2005) was grounded in theory, a later article by Muscott, Pomerleau, and Szczesiul (2009) presented findings from a study in which PBIS was implemented in preschool programs throughout New Hampshire.

In the study conducted by Muscott, Pomerleau, and Szczesiul (2009), PBIS was implemented in early childhood programs throughout New Hampshire with the goal being to establish and sustain an age-appropriate PBIS model for children 3-5 years old. In addition, their program was designed to decrease rates of punitive staff responses to challenging behavior and to increase the time of learning in each classroom (Muscott, Pomerleau, & Szczesiul, 2009). Adaptations from SW-PBIS in this study include more personalized training for program staff, age-appropriate behavioral expectations, class materials, and teacher matrices, and streamline data training to report behavioral incidents (Muscott, Pomerleau, & Szczesiul, 2009). Since individual preschool programs are generally smaller than an entire grade school, preschool staff engaged in a more personalized training in which they were trained to discriminate between “challenging behavior” and “developmentally appropriate behavior,” a large difference between PBS in grade schools (Muscott, Pomerleau, & Szczesiul, 2009). Since preschool children are so young, it is important to note that some challenging behaviors are age-appropriate but may require supports if they continue past that developmentally-appropriate time frame. Overall, Muscott, Pomerleau, and Szczesiul (2009) found that all of the preschool programs participating in the study demonstrated success with defining, teaching, and acknowledging challenging behaviors, with some programs having decreases in overall behavioral incidents after PBS was implemented.

Program Evaluation

To evaluate the effectiveness of PBS implementation within a grade school environment, the School-wide Evaluation Tool (SET) is administered to see what components of the program are being implemented correctly. The SET includes domains that cover school-wide approaches to PBS that are not directly applicable to a preschool environment (i.e., the SET examines school-wide expectations opposed to classroom expectations seen in preschools). In 2005, the Preschool-wide Evaluation Tool (Pre-SET) was developed to help cater the items and domains on the checklist to fit preschool PBS environments, while still maintaining the structure and format of the SET, such as scoring (Benedict, Horner, & Squires, 2007). In terms of scoring, the SET and Pre-SET evaluate implementation of PBS practices on a 2-point Likert scale, with “0” showing no implementation, “1” being partially implemented, and “2” being fully implemented (Benedict, Horner, & Squires, 2007). Several articles to be discussed in this review utilize the Pre-SET to evaluate PBS program effectiveness, showing the need to have a specific tool to evaluate preschool environments in a distinctive way compared to grade school evaluation.

Program Materials

PBS program materials are an interesting component of preschool environments. While PBS promotes the display of behavioral expectations throughout every participating school, preschoolers are in need of more than just a poster with the expectations listed on it. Benedict, Horner, and Squires (2007) expressed the need to have a rules poster with 5 positive rules posted in each classroom throughout the preschool. The importance of the positive term (i.e., “use gentle hands”) opposed to negative statements (“don’t hit”) communicates the behavior in which the student is expected to engage, not the behavior in which they should not engage. This is a large component of PBS in general because the teaching of an appropriate behavior tells the student what to do, not what not to do. In addition to the rules poster, Benedict, Horner, and Squires (2007) discussed posting a class schedule in each classroom to aid in the transition between activities. The class schedule in conjunction with the use of transition warnings or signals help prepare the students for what is coming up and in turn, the chances of challenging behavior occurring decreases. While grade schools have behavior expectations posted throughout the school environment, the addition of class schedules and transitions with classroom posters are all necessary for a successful PBS program at the preschool level.

Behavior Expectations

The final adaptation for preschool PBS to be discussed is behavioral expectations. It is important to take into consideration a child’s capacity for understanding the world around them and, generally speaking, society expects less from a preschool child in terms of behavior than a grade school student. Research on PBS demonstrates the need to have less behavioral expectations at the preschool level than at grade school levels due to the developmental levels of preschool students (Muscott, Pomerleau, & Szczesiul, 2009; Stormont, Lewis, & Beckner, 2005). Similar to Stormont, Lewis, and Beckner (2005), the study conducted by Muscott, Pomerleau, and Szczesiul (2009) utilized less behavioral expectations with an important inclusion of developmentally appropriate terms and wording. The last adaptation noted was gearing teacher matrices of behavioral expectations to fit classroom routines opposed to locations throughout the schools. For example, in SW-PBIS, the students are instructed on appropriate behaviors in different environments throughout the school, such as the lunch room, bus, or after school events. Conversely, preschool students generally remain within their classroom so their expectations are geared toward routines within the room, such as circle time and snack time.

After discussing all of the important adaptations necessary for PBS to be successful within preschools, it is important to note that there are additional aspects of PBS to take into account when implementing PBS at this level. The additional special considerations to be discussed below include teacher consultation, behavior screening and assessment as a part of early intervention, cultural aspects of PBS implementation, and the use of praise and precorrection within a preschool PBS framework.

Special Considerations for implementing PBS in Preschools

As noted from all of the necessary grade school PBS adaptations for preschool, it is apparent that the preschool population requires additional considerations when implementing a PBS framework. Research has demonstrated a strong need for teacher consultation when initially implementing PBS in addition to staff training (Benedict, Horner, & Squires, 2007; Carter & Van Norman, 2010). In addition, the importance of early behavior screening and assessment has large implications on a child’s future and can aid in preventing behavioral problems later in a child’s life (Burke, Rispoli, Clemens, Lee, Sanchez, & Hatton, 2015). As may be expected, research has also demonstrated a large cultural difference of PBS implementation at the preschool level, presenting important recommendations to consider in the future (Steed, Noh, & Heo, 2014). Finally, the fourth consideration research has demonstrated when implementing PBS in preschool is the use of teacher praise and precorrection in the prevention of challenging behaviors (Stormont, Smith, & Lewis, 2007). While all considerations may present different findings, all four of these considerations are unique to the preschool environment in terms of PBS and each need to be thoroughly explored to improve the implementation of PBS in preschools.

Teacher Consultation

In conjunction with PBS training, preschools implementing PBS have demonstrated to benefit from PBS consultation in aiding teachers with implementing program components (Benedict, Horner, & Squires, 2007; Carter & Van Norman, 2010). In the study conducted by Benedict, Horner, and Squires (2007), one of the research questions posed was in reference to examining if teachers found PBS consultation appropriate and effective in the implementation of PBS within their school. Utilizing the Pre-SET, the four classrooms utilized for the study were the classes that implemented the least components of PBS (e.g., a Pre-SET score of less than 60%). After an initial PBS meeting with the leadership team, consultation sessions with the consultant and each teacher began where the consultant observed the teacher in the classroom, modeled appropriate teaching strategies for PBS, and gave the teachers feedback on the use of targeted PBS skills ((Benedict, Horner, & Squires, 2007). After these consultation sessions, each classroom demonstrated higher levels of PBS components being implemented when compared to preconsultation. In addition, lower rates of challenging behavior were observed in three out of the four classes and the teachers responded that the consultation was “great” and they would recommend the use for future programs (Benedict, Horner, & Squires, 2007).

The study conducted by Carter and Van Norman (2010) was a replication of the study conducted by Benedict, Horner, and Squires (2007), examining the impact of consultation on teacher’s implementation of PBS practices that impact student academic performance. The study by Carter and Van Norman (2010) also explored if teachers’ perception of student behavior changed after PBS consultation. Similar to the previous study, Carter and Van Norman (2010) utilized the Pre-SET for the inclusion criteria for the study, utilizing four classrooms that were demonstrating less than 25% of PBS components within their classes. During the consultation phase, the consultants met with teachers during a time when children were not present within the classroom, a noted difference between this study and Benedict, Horner, and Squire’s (2007) study. Also unlike the previous study, the consultant provided the teachers with a binder that included the three key PBS elements: consistent and predictable environment, effective and efficient transitions, and acknowledging appropriate behavior (Carter & Van Norman, 2010). While Benedict, Horner, and Squire (2007) did not provide a hard copy of these elements, they did align with the skills discussed during consultation sessions with the teachers. The teachers then had the opportunity to engage in more than one consultation session, with only one teacher choosing to do so (Carter & Van Norman, 2010). Results of this study were consistent with the results from Benedict, Horner, and Squire (2007) in that there was an increase in the aspects of PBS implemented in each classroom compared to preconsultation (Carter & Van Norman, 2010). However, the rate of academic engagement remained constant during the intervention period, as the rates of engagement were already high during the baseline (i.e., preconsultation) period.

While these studies were very similar, they both posed very important findings in regards to the impact of PBS consultation on teacher implementation of PBS program components. Although teacher consultation is not a requirement of a PBS program at the preschool or grade school level, it would be interesting to continue to collect information on its effectiveness in improving rates of PBS components actually being implemented by teachers. This extra component of PBS seems to assist teachers past the training they are given with the rest of a preschool staff and these individual meetings may be exactly what teachers need as the implementers of the program.

Behavior Screening and Assessment

Early detection of a problem in many fields (i.e., medical, school, mental health, etc.) is often key in future prevention and treatment. This is no different when working with preschool children who engage in challenging behavior, as early detection and intervention presents a lower chance of the problem behaviors persisting throughout their childhood. Althought there are many strategies and tools available for behavioral screening in preschool, evidence has supported the use of evidence-based screening in conjunction with PBS programs to detect children with challenging behaviors (Burke, Rispoli, Clemens, Lee, Sanchez, & Hatton, 2015). Expectation-based screening is described to be an evaluation of a student’s ability to engage in the positive behavioral expectations outlined in the school’s PBS program. In the study conducted by Burke, Rispoli, Clemens, Lee, Sanchez, and Hatton (2015), two expectation-based screeners were utilized to determine if expectation-based screening, in conjunction with PBS, was a valid tool in screening for challenging behaviors in preschool children. The two screeners used in the study were the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) and the Preschool and Kindergarten Behavior Scales, 2nd edition (PKBS-2). Specifically, the study wanted to see how the constructs on the screeners align with the PBS behavioral expectations, how accurate it was with detecting children at risk, and the correlations between behavior expectations and subscales on the screeners.

In this study, the SDQ was a measure administered to teachers to fill out in regards to their students’ emotions and behaviors and was administered at the start and end of the school year. The PKBS-2, however, was administered only at the end of the school year and it was also completed by the teachers to evaluate school-based emotional and behavioral problems of their students. The study included a sample of 65 children in a Head Start center that was implementing PBS at that time. The three behavioral expectations of this school were to “Be Safe,” “Be Kind,” and “Be Responsible.” The results of this study demonstrated that there were higher rates of accuracy reported when classifying students at risk for overt, externalizing, or disruptive behaviors, with weak associations between the emotional subscales on the SDQ and internalizing problems subscale on the PKBS-2 (Burke, Rispoli, Clemens, Lee, Sanchez, & Hatton, 2015). In sum, the SDQ and PKBS-2 seem to be valid measures for identifying students at risk for behavioral problems, but less valid in identifying students at risk for internalizing emotional problems (Burke, Rispoli, Clemens, Lee, Sanchez, & Hatton, 2015).

Althought expectation-based screening may not be perfect in identifying all students at risk for behavioral and emotional problems, it is still a useful early intervention tool as it identifies students at risk for more externalizing behaviors. Utilizing expectation-based screening at the preschool level in conjunction with PBS can provide more information about students within the classrooms that need additional supports, an important step in challenging behavior prevention and intervention. Moving forward, additional considerations must be discussed to establish the need for cultural considerations when implementing PBS as well as the use of teacher precorrection and praise within the PBS framework within preschool environments.

Cultural Differences in Implementing PBS

Cultural barriers and differences are all around us, as some cultures value particular practices and traditions more so than other cultures. Culture is an interesting facet to explore within any discipline in psychology due to the different perceptions cultures possess about mental health services. However, within the contexts of implementing PBS in preschools, glaring cultural differences were examined in a study by Steed, Noh, and Heo (2014). Within this study, cultural differences were explored between the U.S. and South Korea in the implementation of PBS at the preschool level. The study examined the implementation of PBS at 63 South Korean early childhood centers and 58 U.S. centers, all with children from 3 to 5 years old. Similar to other studies utilized in this review, the study examined the implementation of PBS components through the evaluation of the Pre-SET, having translated it into Korean to use with those centers. Results indicate that, at a general level, more components of PBS are implemented within U.S. preschools compared to South Korean preschools. Of particular interest, however, was that South Korean preschools demonstrated more family involvement within their PBS framework than U.S. preschools. This cultural difference has large implications for future research as family involvement is a key component in preventing challenging behaviors in children. As stated in the article, there are no studies that directly compare family involvement and rates of challenging behaviors in U.S and South Korean preschools, but this dimension would provide interesting insight for PBS implementation. Although the U.S demonstrated higher rates of PBS implementation, if the preschools are not actively engaging and involving families, it may be difficult to see a long-term behavior change in children if they are held to similar standards at school and at home.

Use of Teacher Praise and Precorrection

The final consideration to discuss when implementing PBS in preschools is the use of teacher praise and precorrection within their classrooms. Precorrection is defined as the teacher reminding the student(s) of the behavioral expectations prior to engaging in the class routine or period. Specifically, a study conducted by Stormont, Smith, and Lewis (2007) examined the impact of praise and precorrection on decreasing rates of challenging behavior in preschool students ages 3 to 5. Three teachers in Head Start programs were selected for participation in the study based on their higher use of negative statements (i.e., “reprimands”) versus their use of praise statements. Training was extensive for the teachers participating, as they attended a two-day workshop on PBS, as they had no prior experience with the framework, and 2 two-hour inservices led by a behavior consultant. Results of the study indicate that each classroom’s rates of problem behavior decreased and all three teacher’s use of specific praise increased. In addition, low uses of reprimands were reported for each teacher and two teachers increased their rates of precorrections within the classroom. A study conducted by Benedict, Horner, and Squires (2007) advised that the correct ratio of positive-to-negative statements should be 4 to 1, meaning for every 1 reprimanding statement addressed to a student, 4 positive praise statements should be used. The use of praise and precorrection not only limits reprimands given to students, but the positive attention from teachers help decrease rates of problem behavior. This finding has a large implication within the field as research continues to support the use of positive interactions with students over negative interactions in hopes of decreasing challenging behaviors.

The remainder of this review will focus on specific PBS programs or interventions that have shown effectiveness when implemented in preschool environments. The programs and interventions to be discussed are organized below in Table 2.

Effective Examples of PBS in Preschools

Table 2: Effective PBS Preschool Programs or Interventions

 

Program/Intervention  PBS Support Level (Tier)   Who is this Program/Intervention Geared towards?
 Teaching Pyramid (Hemmeter, Fox, Jack, & Broyles, 2007)  Tier 1
Tier 2
Tier 3
 Teacher training module to prevent challenging behaviors in children by fostering positive teacher-student relationships and supportive classroom environments
 Pyramid Model for Social Emotional Competence in Infants and Young Children (Fox & Hemmeter, 2014)  Tier 1
Tier 2
Tier 3
 Program framework for early educators to implement within their school environment to prevent challenging behaviors in students
 First Step to Success (LeBel & Chafouleas, 2010)  Tier 1
Tier 2
 Home-school intervention for children at risk for antisocial behaviors; preschool program available, was only K-2; school screening, school intervention, parent training
 Incredible Years (LeBel & Chafouleas, 2010)  Tier 2  Used for children 2-8 years old to prevent and decrease levels of aggression, defiance, oppositional, and impulsive behavior while increasing social and emotional competence
 Second Step (LeBel & Chafouleas, 2010)  Tier 1  Can be used with children preschool to grade 9 to prevent aggression while promoting social competence
 Skillstreaming in Early Childhood (LeBel & Chafouleas, 2010)  Tier 1  Early childhood version for preschool and kindergarten-age children, with an emphasis on family involvement to teach social skills
 Thumbs Up (Steed, 2011)  Tier 2  Preschool adaptation of the Check-In Check-Out (CICO) procedure used for grade school children; Behavior Education Program (BEP) includes aspects of CICO with added positive attention for positive behaviors, preschool-friendly images, and reinforcers in the form of activities and privileges opposed to tangibles

Teaching Pyramid

After examining Table 2 above, it is clear that there are some evidence-based PBS programs or interventions utilized at the preschool level. Two preschool PBS program models (that eventually merge into Fox and Hemmeter’s (2014) model) were utilized for this literature review to demonstrate the overall framework and necessary components of PBS within the preschool environment. First, a case study presented by Hemmeter, Fox, Jack, and Broyles (2007) utilized the Teaching Pyramid training model at Head Start centers in Kansas due to reports of high levels of job-related stress and staff burnout. The training and beginnings of the PBS program took place over several years, with each year yielding positive results. A unique aspect of the Teaching Pyramid presented in Hemmeter et al. (2007) is that there are four pyramid levels opposed to the typical three we see in a school age PBS model. Within this model, universal supports encompass two different levels within the pyramid: (1) positive relationships with children, staff, and families, and (2) classroom preventative practices. This distinct addition of positive relationships emphasizes to teachers and staff how important it is to be role models (i.e., through staff relationships) and to have positive interactions and relationships with both family and students to prevent challenging behavior occurrences. Within this framework, tier 2 is targeted towards social and emotional supports, such as teaching the children to express their emotions, how to self-regulate their emotions, and proper friendship skills. Tier 3 includes specific individual interventions for students with the most demanding behavioral needs (Hemmeter et al., 2007).

After PBS and Teacher Pyramid training in year one, staff felt more confident in supporting children with challenging behaviors, were less reliant on outside agencies for behavioral referrals, and no longer used time out (Hemmeter et al., 2007). At the end of year two, staff members were less likely to request for mental health or crisis services from outside agencies and the school’s focus and funding shifted towards more preventative practices than intervention services. Finally, after three years of implementing the program, only three mental health referrals were placed compared to 49 referrals the year before the program began and staff identified five main themes of the program: (1) power of adopting behavioral expectations in the prevention of problem behaviors; (2) integrating fundamental assumptions that drive PBS (i.e., change in teaching style); (3) integration of the approach in the program; (4) change in disciplinary practices (i.e., no more use of time out); and (5) the change in the interactions with families. Staff identified these five themes to be factors that assisted the program’s success with PBS (Hemmeter et al., 2007).

Pyramid Model for Social and Emotional Competence in Infants and Young Children

Several years after the case study by Hemmeter et al. (2007), Fox and Hemmeter (2014) presented the Pyramid Model for Social and Emotional Competence in Infants and Young Children, the preschool equivalent of SW-PBIS. This updated pyramid model reflected a thorough review of the literature, one study of use being Hemmeter et al. (2007). Similar to SW-PBIS, the use of a pyramid helps distinguish universal, secondary, and tertiary levels of support within the framework. At the preschool level, however, Fox and Hemmeter (2014) emphasized several key components specifically at the universal (tier 1) and secondary (tier 2) levels (as discussed earlier with Hemmeter et al., 2007). For example, the universal level emphasizes the need for nurturing and responsive adult relationships and high quality, supportive classroom environments, aspects most likely not to be emphasized within a grade school PBS framework (Fox & Hemmeter, 2014). Again, the overall idea of a targeted, small group instruction is shared between this preschool pyramid model and the school age PBS model, but the trainings at each level are very different in order to cater to the developmental needs of the preschool students.

LeBel and Chafouleas (2010)

At the intervention level, LeBel and Chafouleas (2010) reviewed preschool PBS intervention strategies that were being utilized at that time. It is of importance to note that LeBel and Chafouleas (2010) acknowledged that, generally, interventions are less researched at the preschool level, yielding less available effective strategies. The first program that they discussed was the First Step to Success program, a home-based intervention for children at risk for antisocial behaviors. This intervention encompasses universal (i.e., screening) and secondary supports due to the school interventions and parent training at home. Although this program specifically screens for antisocial behaviors, it may be beneficial for preschools in that it includes the screening and intervention strategies within one program. The second program that the authors noted was the Incredible Years, a program used with children 2 to 8 years old to prevent or decrease levels of aggression, defiance, oppositional, and impulsive behaviors while enhancing student’s social and emotional competence. This program is unique in that there are curricula for parents, teachers, and children to present a “wraparound” (i.e., home and school inclusion) approach for social and emotional competence in the children. Many of the interventions within this program take the form of student groups to teach specific skills, making it a tier 2 intervention. The third program discussed by the authors was the Second Step, a prevention program for aggression through the promotion of social competence. This program is unique in that it can reach a wide range of students, from preschool age up through grade 9. The purpose of this intervention is to teach empathy, social problem solving, and impulse control to provide the children with more enhanced social skills. Finally, the authors discussed Skillstreaming in Early Childhood, a tier 2 intervention that teaches social skills such as friendship-making skills, dealing with emotions, alternatives to aggression, and ways to cope with stress. This program is unique because of its emphasis on home-school collaboration and family involvement in the teaching of the skills. While these programs may be evidence-based, they are often not available or accessible to preschools as they are not publicly available (LeBel & Chafouleas, 2010).

Thumbs Up

Finally, a tier 2 intervention, Thumbs Up, was presented within a study conducted by Steed (2011) in which modifications were made to the Behavior Education Plan’s (BEP) Check-In Check-Out (CICO) intervention for school age students. CICO is a procedure in which a student carries a rating sheet with them that reference the accomplishment of tasks or behaviors throughout the school day. Usually, the student is required to “check-in” with a specific teacher at the beginning of the day to discuss the expectations and rewards that are available if they meet their goal. The student then brings this sheet with them to each class, with each teacher signing off or assigning a rating to the student’s behavior, “checks-out” with a designated teacher, and then receives reinforcement if they meet their established goal for the day. Often the scoring or ratings on these CICO sheets are in the form of a Likert scale and school age students may not receive positive feedback until the end of the day.

Due to these aforementioned elements, Steed (2011) adapted this CICO procedure within a case study to meet the needs of a preschool student engaging in an average of 23 instances of inappropriate social behaviors (i.e., yelling at others, stealing toys from others, hiding others’ belongings, and crying) and needed more than the universal PBS support being provided. Instead of the rating form having a Likert scale with numbers, this forms a thumbs-up picture (denoting following behavioral expectations) and a thumbs-down picture (did not follow behavioral expectations), with the student’s goal being to acquire more thumbs-up pictures than thumbs-down pictures by the end of the day (Steed, 2011). This preschool student followed a similar procedure to CICO in that he met with the program director in the morning, gave the sheet to his teacher before each class routine (e.g., snack time, circle time), and checked-out at the end of the day with the director. Changes were made in that this student received more positive feedback throughout the day opposed to the end of the day and if the student’s day was more positive than negative (i.e., more thumbs-up pictures), he was able to engage in a preferred activity for ten minutes before pick up at the end of the day.

Results of this case study noted that the student was following more classroom rules after just 1.5 weeks of beginning the Thumbs Up program and had decreased the rate of his disruptive behaviors to one-to-two occurrences a day. In addition to the positive behavior change, the student was excited about his behavior sheet and the family reported being happy and positive about their child’s behavior, yielding social significance of the intervention (Steed, 2011). Many preschool PBS programs and interventions were explored within this literature review, but much more research should be conducted to discover more secondary and tertiary levels of support for preschool students.

Discussion

Within this review of the literature, some broad areas of preschool PBS were explored: (1) necessary adaptations of grade school PBS programs to fit preschool needs; (2) special considerations for implementing PBS in preschools; and (3) examples of PBS programs that have been effective within the preschool environment. While many findings present solid recommendations for implementing PBS programs in preschools, several areas need to be explored in a more in-depth manner to determine the most effective PBS practices at this level. Suggestions for further research include exploring the impact of culture on implementing PBS in preschools (e.g., South Korean emphasis on family involvement; Will higher levels of family involvement correlate with lower levels of challenging behavior?), academic outcomes for PBS in preschools (e.g., Do students attending schools with PBS achieve higher academic skills/grades?), and secondary and tertiary levels of supports and interventions at the preschool level. As stated by LeBel and Chafouleas (2010), “Behavioral consultation for preschool populations is an area in dire need of further attention.” It should be more of a primary focus within the field of PBS research.

References

Benedict, E. A., Horner, R. H., & Squires, J. K. (2007). Assessment and implementation of positive behavior support in preschools. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 27(3), 174-192. doi:10.1177/02711214070270030801

Burke, M. D., Rispoli, M., Clemens, N. H., Lee, Y. H., Sanchez, L., & Hatton, H. (2015). Integrating universal behavioral screening within program-wide positive behavioral interventions and supports. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, doi:10.1177/1098300715580993.

Caldarella, P., Shatzer, R. H., Gray, K. M., Young, K. R., & Young, E. L. (2011). The effects of school-wide positive behavior support on middle school climate and student outcomes. RMLE Online: Research in Middle Level Education, 35(4), 1-14.

Carter, D. R., & Van Norman, R. K. (2010). Class-wide positive behavior support in preschool: Improving teacher implementation through consultation. Early Childhood Education Journal, 38(4), 279-288. doi: 10.1007/s10643-010-0409-x.

Dunlap, G., Sailor, W., Horner, R. H., & Sugai, G. (2009). Overview and history of positive behavior support. In Handbook of positive behavior support (pp. 3-16). Springer US.

Fox, L., & Hemmeter, M. L. (2014). Implementing Positive Behavioral Intervention and Support. Retrieved from http://www.pyramidmodel.org/uploads/9/5/6/3/9563066/implementing_positive_behavioral_intervention_and_support.pdf.

Hemmeter, M. L., Fox, L., Jack, S., & Broyles, L. (2007). A program-wide model of positive behavior support in early childhood settings. Journal of Early Intervention, 29(4), 337-355. doi: 10.1177/105381510702900405.

Horner, R. H., Todd, A. W., Lewis-Palmer, T., Irvin, L. K., Sugai, G., & Boland, J. B. (2004). The school-wide evaluation tool (SET) a research instrument for assessing school-wide positive behavior support. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 6(1), 3-12.

Horner, R. H., Sugai, G., Smolkowski, K., Eber, L., Nakasato, J., Todd, A. W., & Esperanza, J. (2009). A randomized, wait-list controlled effectiveness trial assessing school-wide positive behavior support in elementary schools.. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions.

LeBel, T. J., & Chafouleas, S. M. (2010, June). Promoting prosocial behavior in preschool: A review of effective intervention supports. In School Psychology Forum (Vol. 4, No. 2). Retrieved from http://www.nasponline.org/publications/spf/index-list.aspx.

Muscott, H. S., Pomerleau, T., & Szczesiul, S. (2009). Large-scale implementation of program-wide positive behavioral interventions and supports in early childhood education programs in New Hampshire. NHSA DIALOG,12(2), 148-169. doi:10.1080/15240750902774726.

Steed, E. A. (2011). Adapting the behavior education program for preschool settings. Beyond Behavior, 20(1), 37-41. Retrieved from http://www.ccbd.net/publications/beyondbehavior.

Steed, E. A., Noh, J., & Heo, K. H. (2014). A cross-cultural comparison of positive behavioral interventions and supports in early childhood classrooms in the United States and South Korea. Infants & Young Children, 27(1), 30-42. doi:10.1097/IYC.0b013e3182a4ec46

Stormont, M., Lewis, T. J., & Beckner, R. (2005). Positive behavior support systems: Applying key features in preschool settings. Teaching Exceptional Children, 37(6), 42. Retrieved from http://tcx.sagepub.com/content/by/year.

Stormont, M. A., Smith, S. C., & Lewis, T. J. (2007). Teacher implementation of precorrection and praise statements in Head Start classrooms as a component of a program-wide system of positive behavior support. Journal of Behavioral Education, 16(3), 280-290. doi:10.1007/s10864-007-9040-3

Sugai, G., & Horner, R. (2002). The evolution of discipline practices: School-wide positive behavior supports. Child & Family Behavior Therapy, 24(1-2), 23-50.

Texas Juvenile Justice Department, & United States of America. (2012). Effectiveness of Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports: A Report to the Texas Legislature.

Sara Boyle, M.Ed., received her B.A in Child Behavioral Services in Psychology from Rowan University in New Jersey and is currently earning her Ph.D. in school psychology at Kent State University. Sara’s passion for early behavioral intervention stems from her behaviorally-based educational background as well as her experience of working as a preschool teacher for four years. Her research interests include early childhood adaptations for implementation of Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports, behavioral consultation, and bullying prevention and intervention.