Tests of intelligence have long been criticized for their discriminatory effects on racial and ethnic minorities. One explanation for these effects is that IQ tests are only valid when used with the cultural groups for which they were developed and on which they were normed (Valdes & Figueroa, 1994). Because tests of intelligence originated from various European countries, it is logical to conclude that their content reflects European culture (Kamphaus, 1993). Performance on IQ tests, then, is largely indicative of the extent to which students have mastered the skills and abilities valued by European culture (Ortiz & Dynda, 2005).